Research Method in Criminology

Criminology has started to be known as an independent science since 1830. It is because criminology uses scientific method or scientific research method. Research can be formulated as “…the use of standardized, systematic procedures in the search of knowledge”. Criminology has characteristics of science and meets various requirements as a science so that it is fundamentally different from other sciences. Characteristics of science are explanations that need to meet the following requirements, that characteristics of science are systematically arranged explanations with frameworks and stages of thought which are easy to be followed; have methods in mining data which can be studied that the reality makes sense or logical where the mining  is done thoroughly from real experience or empiric; the thing that is found and revealed is a truth which can be accepted generally and eventually the results of the truth develop and become more perfect cumulatively.

Criminological research has at least the following significances:

1. 1. It will remove or at least reduce false beliefs, mainly regarding the causes of crime and the efficiency of various methods of fostering incarcerated individuals in addition to the effective prevention concept.
   2. From the positive side, a research can be beneficial to improve lawbreaker training and further replaces the outdated method of fostering lawbreakers, in the form of individual benefits which can smooth out behavior that increasingly live the essence of crime.
   3. The result of criminological research slowly gives benefits through control group research and ecological research which can provide information material which was unavailable previously about non-delinquency and about the characteristics of different areas of residence in relation to crime, including important elements for subjective and objective approaches.

That’s the fact of the importance of criminological research which is not only useful for understanding the phenomenon of crime, the causes of crime and the importance in the ultimate goal of crime prevention, but also for development. Criminology through scientific research has experienced rapid development in strengthening itself as a science, knowledge which has the meaning of social benefits and support national development (by taking into account the consequences of crime and laying the foundations for preventive action). Criminological research with various methods occupies an important position for the development of science and for combating crime in order to succeed national development.

Every research in various sciences has its own difficulties. In criminology field, the things that need attention are the difficulties about:

1. 1. Access to research data, which is caused by the nature of punishment which causes the perpetrator or the other respondents to be afraid to provide information (afraid of punishment and stigmatisation); including access to research data which is held by criminal justice system officers;
   2. The existence of confusion that may exist in the researchers, which is caused because researchers have lived values (weltanschauung) which are different from those of perpetrators of crime or other respondents;
   3. The use of the result of the research which is caused by criminology and penologist is basically practical discipline so that there is a tendency to carry out applied practical research.

Even though criminology is a branch of science from social science, but etiology in criminology also looks at physical factors. Therefore, natural research methods (medicine, psychiatry, psycho-analysis) are needed, namely in the criminology section which is called clinical criminology (differentiated from socio-criminology). In comparing social research method with natural research method, it is often discussed the existing differences between a qualitative approach with a quantitative approach.

Theory in the development of criminology is an element to explain various views and opinions of criminologists which dynamic and cumulatively develops convincing criminology based on the facts that exist in the association. In a research framework, theory is an element of information that is the broadest in scope, because by going through the element of methodological deduction of logic, theory can be turned into a hypothesis, namely more distinctive and more limited scientific information. Furthermore, the hypothesis can be converted into data or the result of observations where by interpreting the symptoms become something that can be observed through the preparation of measuring instruments, including the preparation of scales and the sample determination. The results of the observation or these data are scientific information which is specific and about certain samples and certain variables as well.

Through measurement, simplification of information and estimation of parameters, observations can be converted into information which is more general in nature, namely empirical generalization. Furthermore, empirical generalizations can be made into theories through the arrangement of concepts and arrangement of propositions. The empirical generalization which is generated by observation is compared again with the hypothesis which is the basis of observation as a hypothesis testing process. Hypothesis testing will produce new scientific information, whether the hypothesis is accepted or rejected. On scientific basis, researchers make logical references to determine whether theory which used in the research should be changed or rejected altogether. Applied methods and data mining of information is revealed by using criminological research methods such as therapeutical method, statistical method, crime relationship method and social conditions which are recorded in statistics, the use of case history, use of life history, the method of participant observer and longitudinal method.

1. 1. Therapeutical method

Treatment or therapy in this criminological research method is not treatment in the truest sense. Because one of the objects of study in criminology is criminals, in this case humans, then the experiments carried out on these humans are also limited. Sometimes, certain factors in someone’s life can also be studied as experimental material.

For example, Clifford de Shaw tried to reorganize surroundings with a hypothesis, that the chaos in the prone region in Chicago cause crime. When the treatment causes a change in behaviour, then the conjecture according to the theory is useful and at least partially applicable. On this method, experiment is carried out for treatment and improvement, where the results of th improvement and treatment can generate the theories which are useful in solving the same problems which occur in almost the same area.

1. 2. Statistical method

This method basically uses comparison according to statistics science between criminals and non-criminals. It means a lot to source of knowledge about the cause of crime contained in comparison according to the statistic science between criminals and non-criminal, as well as the conditions where the criminals live and the conditions of the environment which is non-criminals. The problem is, sample which is used is criminals who are caught, while the group who commit crimes but have not been caught cannot be known and sampled, so that the results are less accurate.

1. 3. Methods of crime relations and social conditions recorded in statistics

Reciprocal relationship can easily be interpreted as the extent where two different things are related together. By means of the reciprocal relationship, it can be known that other conditions which influence to crime, with two requirements can be gotten the sufficient index figures for the two groups of symptoms which are related.

Reciprocal relationship means a lot in criminology and it can be found based on time or place, so that it can be known to what extent the crime index figures rise or decrease according to changes in population density or with the decline in business, food prices, climate, etc. In short, this method uses statistical methods not only the number of crimes that are seen and analyzed, but at the same time analyzing the other numbers like economic growth, population growth, etc. The two indexes are then analyzed together and found the relationship between one another.

1. 4. The use of case history

A good case history brings knowledge which is much thorough about a criminal than the one that could ever be given by statistics. Statistics cannot show fully the relationship of many factors that influence each other or goals of different life experiences. Certain types of discovery come from a lot of studies from a case, and can indeed be treated according to statistics and the conclusions is drawn from the results that have been studied and analyzed carefully. This method has a drawback, namely very subjective depending on experience and the ability of interpretation of the researcher.

1. 5. Use of life history

Life history is a document which can be written by criminals themselves. It is because people’s interpretation about life experiences are very useful even though it is made based on an error, but if a statement which is sometimes held is declared as something which is not important to ensure the accuracy and precision of the statements which are not true. Life history has clear boundaries as well as can only be written by well-educated people. Therefore, life history will have a low value if full trust from the author is not earned. Life history cannot describe involuntary movements even though this is sometimes done through careful analysis from others. Incarcerated individuals who are asked to write life history, they generally fake their material. If researchers do not give advice to the incarcerated individuals on what to be written, then incarcerated individuals generally skips the most important part of is life. However, if the researchers suggest what must be included in the life history, then the incarcerated individuals can imagine the interpretation of cases which is expected so that they write it in full.

1. 6. The method of participant observer

This research method is considered the most difficult and dangerous because the researcher become directly part of the criminals or groups that commit crimes. By being involved in a close relationship with criminal experience, then it can be seen a lot of aspects that will never be understood in another way. Besides, it will arise difficulty in arranging an opportunity like this, and the possibility to be involved in a crime is very large. If it is done well, then the results will be objectively representative and supported by recorded facts from life experiences which are naturally lived by researchers.

1. 7. Longitudinal method

This method is the oldest and most cost-consuming method. Why? It is because research with this method takes at least 10 to 30 years in making observations. In such a time span length, all methods and approaches can be applied. For example, researchers conduct a research on delinquent behaviour in children in its influence after adulthood. Automatically, researchers will wait for the children to be adults to be studied and observe the surrounding factors that permit to have an influence to the behaviour of the child.

This research does not only rely on society who put vital attention in the matter of crime, but willing to wait for quite a long time with various effects that develop and change because of the development of society. It can be said that almost a generation must be fulfilled to be able to formulate a prevention program that approaches the needs in relation to the results of the long-term study.

In contrast to the method described above, Herman Mannheim uses two kinds of methods used in criminological research, namely Principal Methods and Secondary Methods.

1. Principal Method

In the principal method is divided into several models of research methods, including statistical method, typology, individual case studies (psychology or psychiatry).

a. Statistical method

As discussed in the previous section, the statistical method focuses the research on the criminal aspect of crime broadly. This statistical method has variants where one of them is survey research. By using survey, bulk quantities of data will be obtained that are taken from samples that have been determined and then drawn into a conclusion.

b. Typology

The use of typology in criminal research has started since Lombrosso. Often this kind of research looks for the relationship between body type and other factors such as personality and other factors of a socio-cultural nature. This typology is often used as the basis for research, for example the Sheldon typology or the Kretschmer typology.

c. Individual case studies

The individual case study research method is a research method in the principal method which is opposite to statistical methods. While the statistical method focuses the research on the mass aspects of crime, the individual case study method focuses the research on individual criminal cases which are often associated with quantitative and qualitative approaches.

2. Secondary Method

Like the principal research, secondary research is also divided into several research models, including sociological research (related to institutions, groups and region), experimental, prediction and operational.

a. Sociological method

What is meant by sociological method is a method which is used especially in sociological criminology to distinguish it from biological and psychological criminology. In general, the object of this study can be distinguished with respect to the problem, namely regarding social institutions, such as social class, family, etc; relationships between individuals as individuals as well as members of groups, such as communities, schools, correctional institutions, community organizations, etc; and geographic area. Included in the variant of the sociological method is the observation method (including the participant observation method).

b. Experimental method

Experimental method is widely used in health science research and psychology. In criminology, the use of this method can be considered contrary to the sense of justice. However, there are two well-known major studies in criminology literature, namely Cambridge Somerville Youth Study (1951) and Highfields Experiment (1958). In the first study wanted to test the hypothesis that child delinquency can be prevented by fostering children who have shown a tendency towards it, through the help of a social worker who acts as a guide and friend. Meanwhile, in the second study wanted to test whether the long prison sentence, in certain cases, can be replaced with a conditional sentence accompanied by a short imprisonment with group interaction with direction.

c. Predictive Method

In the 1940s and 1950s, predictive method got great attention. It is because the belief that will be able to find a cause-and-effect relationship, it also cultivates the belief that a person’s behavioural tendencies can be predicted. Predictive studies are conducted to compile a prediction table that can determine the possibility of a person’s success in undergoing parole or the possibility of a child becoming delinquent. This study uses records of individual cases with a number of factors taken from the archive and proceeds statistically. Predictive research uses a way of studying the further development of groups of lawbreakers, especially those who experience various forms of coaching in prison.

d. Operational method

This research method is designed in such a way so that there is a close relationship between theoretical research and practical action. In this study, the researchers work closely with practitioners. In this kind of research, researchers do not only study the relationship between the cause and effect of a situation, but while studying the relationship between the problem, the effects of prevention and solutions are also studied. For example, studying about the relationship of a broken home child with delinquency as well as establishing a youth association where these children can become members to conclude whether there is an effect caused by this interaction. Big researches with operational method which have been done are Chicago Area Project (1932-1957) and Bristol Social Project (1964).

The variety of research models in understanding the factors causes of crime legitimizes Criminology as one of the branches of the discipline of law and continues to grow with more researches about the causes of crime. The variety of results because of different perspectives on understanding crime show that crime is a problem in society that can be seen from various perspectives and the main purpose of studying crime is to look for patterns of crime.

With the emergence of research methods on crime will answer the questions of why it is needed to distinguish between crimes with criminal acts, namely by the existence of research methods that stand alone in seeing crime as a social phenomenon of society, the results of the research can be used to provide input for legal disciplines, especially criminal law. It means that criminology is a different discipline with different objects of study, it does not study criminal acts in the sense of positive law but it studies crime as a phenomenon of society that continues to develop so that the results can be input for the legal discipline.

Based on the brief description above, it can be drawn a thought that criminology is a field of science that is quite important to study because with the existence of criminology it can be used as social control over the policy and implementation of criminal law. The emergence of criminology institutions in several universities is expected to provide contributions and ideas that can be used to develop criminology as a science for welfare of society.